Are you preparing for a competitive exam in India? Indian Polity is a crucial subject you can't afford to ignore. This comprehensive guide is designed to be your one-stop revision source, covering everything from the making of the Constitution to the latest amendments and landmark cases. Let's dive in and master Indian Polity together!
Quick Navigation: Table of Contents
Disclaimer: This is a holistic revision guide. For an in-depth understanding, always supplement your reading with standard textbooks like M. Laxmikanth's "Indian Polity".
1. Making of the Constitution & Salient Features
- Demand for Constituent Assembly: First proposed by M.N. Roy in 1934. Officially demanded by the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1935.
- Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): The Constituent Assembly was formed based on this plan.
- First Meeting: Dec 9, 1946. Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the temporary President.
- Permanent President: Dr. Rajendra Prasad (elected on Dec 11, 1946).
- Objective Resolution: Moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on Dec 13, 1946. This later became the Preamble.
- Drafting Committee: Chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, famously known as the 'Father of the Indian Constitution'.
- Adoption & Enactment: The Constitution was adopted on November 26, 1949, and came into full effect on January 26, 1950 (Republic Day).
Salient Features:
- Lengthiest Written Constitution: Comprehensive and detailed.
- Drawn from Various Sources: Parliamentary system from UK, Fundamental Rights from USA, DPSPs from Ireland, etc.
- Blend of Rigidity & Flexibility: Amended by both simple and special majorities (Art 368).
- Federal System with Unitary Bias: A strong Central government with division of powers.
- Parliamentary Form of Government: The executive is responsible to the legislature.
- Integrated and Independent Judiciary.
- Fundamental Rights, DPSPs, and Fundamental Duties.
- Secular State: No official state religion.
- Universal Adult Franchise: Right to vote for all citizens above 18 (61st Amendment).
2. The Preamble
The Preamble is the soul and identity card of the Constitution. It outlines the core philosophy.
"WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN, SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, LIBERTY, EQUALITY; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY..."
- Is Preamble part of the Constitution?
- Berubari Union Case (1960): SC said NO.
- Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973): SC overturned its earlier decision and held that the Preamble IS an integral part of the Constitution, but is not enforceable in court.
- Amendability: Amended only once by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976, which added three words: Socialist, Secular, and Integrity.
3. Complete List of All Articles of the Constitution (1-395)
As requested, here is a comprehensive, article-by-article breakdown of the entire Constitution of India for your detailed revision. This is a text-only, high-density list designed for quick reference during exam preparation.
PART I: THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY
Art. 1: Name and territory of the Union.
Art. 2: Admission or establishment of new States.
Art. 3: Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States.
Art. 4: Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amendment of the First and the Fourth Schedules and supplemental, incidental and consequential matters.
PART II: CITIZENSHIP
Art. 5: Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution.
Art. 6: Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan.
Art. 7: Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan.
Art. 8: Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin residing outside India.
Art. 9: Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens.
Art. 10: Continuance of the rights of citizenship.
Art. 11: Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law.
PART III: FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Art. 12: Definition of "the State".
Art. 13: Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights.
Art. 14: Equality before law.
Art. 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
Art. 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.
Art. 17: Abolition of Untouchability.
Art. 18: Abolition of titles.
Art. 19: Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc.
Art. 20: Protection in respect of conviction for offences.
Art. 21: Protection of life and personal liberty.
Art. 21A: Right to education.
Art. 22: Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Art. 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour.
Art. 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.
Art. 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion.
Art. 26: Freedom to manage religious affairs.
Art. 27: Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.
Art. 28: Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions.
Art. 29: Protection of interests of minorities.
Art. 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.
Art. 31: (Repealed).
Art. 32: Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by this Part (Constitutional Remedies).
Art. 33: Power of Parliament to modify the rights in their application to Forces, etc.
Art. 34: Restriction on rights while martial law is in force in any area.
Art. 35: Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this Part.
PART IV: DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
Art. 36: Definition of "the State".
Art. 37: Application of the principles contained in this Part.
Art. 38: State to secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the people.
Art. 39: Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State.
Art. 39A: Equal justice and free legal aid.
Art. 40: Organisation of village panchayats.
Art. 41: Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases.
Art. 42: Provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief.
Art. 43: Living wage, etc., for workers.
Art. 43A: Participation of workers in management of industries.
Art. 43B: Promotion of co-operative societies.
Art. 44: Uniform civil code for the citizens.
Art. 45: Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years.
Art. 46: Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections.
Art. 47: Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health.
Art. 48: Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry.
Art. 48A: Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wild life.
Art. 49: Protection of monuments and places and objects of national importance.
Art. 50: Separation of judiciary from executive.
Art. 51: Promotion of international peace and security.
PART IVA: FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
Art. 51A: Fundamental duties.
PART V: THE UNION
Chapter I: The Executive
Art. 52: The President of India.
Art. 53: Executive power of the Union.
Art. 54: Election of President.
Art. 55: Manner of election of President.
Art. 56: Term of office of President.
Art. 57: Eligibility for re-election.
Art. 58: Qualifications for election as President.
Art. 59: Conditions of President's office.
Art. 60: Oath or affirmation by the President.
Art. 61: Procedure for impeachment of the President.
Art. 62: Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the office of President.
Art. 63: The Vice-President of India.
Art. 64: The Vice-President to be ex officio Chairman of the Council of States.
Art. 65: The Vice-President to act as President or to discharge his functions.
Art. 66: Election of Vice-President.
Art. 67: Term of office of Vice-President.
Art. 68: Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the office of Vice-President.
Art. 69: Oath or affirmation by the Vice-President.
Art. 70: Discharge of President's functions in other contingencies.
Art. 71: Matters relating to the election of a President or Vice-President.
Art. 72: Power of President to grant pardons, etc.
Art. 73: Extent of executive power of the Union.
Art. 74: Council of Ministers to aid and advise President.
Art. 75: Other provisions as to Ministers.
Art. 76: Attorney-General for India.
Art. 77: Conduct of business of the Government of India.
Art. 78: Duties of Prime Minister as respects the furnishing of information to the President, etc.
Chapter II: Parliament
Art. 79: Constitution of Parliament.
Art. 80: Composition of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha).
Art. 81: Composition of the House of the People (Lok Sabha).
Art. 82: Readjustment after each census.
Art. 83: Duration of Houses of Parliament.
Art. 84: Qualification for membership of Parliament.
Art. 85: Sessions of Parliament, prorogation and dissolution.
Art. 86: Right of President to address and send messages to Houses.
Art. 87: Special address by the President.
Art. 88: Rights of Ministers and Attorney-General as respects Houses.
Art. 89: The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Council of States.
Art. 90: Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the office of Deputy Chairman.
Art. 91: Power of the Deputy Chairman to perform the duties of the office of Chairman.
Art. 92: The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to preside while a resolution for his removal is under consideration.
Art. 93: The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House of the People.
Art. 94: Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
Art. 95: Power of the Deputy Speaker to perform the duties of the office of Speaker.
Art. 96: The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside while a resolution for his removal is under consideration.
Art. 97: Salaries and allowances of the Chairman, Deputy Chairman, Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
Art. 98: Secretariat of Parliament.
Art. 99: Oath or affirmation by members.
Art. 100: Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act notwithstanding vacancies and quorum.
Art. 101: Vacation of seats.
Art. 102: Disqualifications for membership.
Art. 103: Decision on questions as to disqualifications of members.
Art. 104: Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath or when not qualified or when disqualified.
Art. 105: Powers, privileges, etc., of the Houses of Parliament and of the members and committees thereof.
Art. 106: Salaries and allowances of members.
Art. 107: Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills.
Art. 108: Joint sitting of both Houses in certain cases.
Art. 109: Special procedure in respect of Money Bills.
Art. 110: Definition of "Money Bills".
Art. 111: Assent to Bills.
Art. 112: Annual financial statement (Budget).
Art. 113: Procedure in Parliament with respect to estimates.
Art. 114: Appropriation Bills.
Art. 115: Supplementary, additional or excess grants.
Art. 116: Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional grants.
Art. 117: Special provisions as to financial Bills.
Art. 118: Rules of procedure.
Art. 119: Regulation by law of procedure in Parliament in relation to financial business.
Art. 120: Language to be used in Parliament.
Art. 121: Restriction on discussion in Parliament.
Art. 122: Courts not to inquire into proceedings of Parliament.
Chapter III: Legislative Powers of the President
Art. 123: Power of President to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Parliament.
Chapter IV: The Union Judiciary
Art. 124: Establishment and constitution of Supreme Court.
Art. 125: Salaries, etc., of Judges.
Art. 126: Appointment of acting Chief Justice.
Art. 127: Appointment of ad hoc Judges.
Art. 128: Attendance of retired Judges at sittings of the Supreme Court.
Art. 129: Supreme Court to be a court of record.
Art. 130: Seat of Supreme Court.
Art. 131: Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
Art. 132: Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in certain cases.
Art. 133: Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in regard to civil matters.
Art. 134: Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in regard to criminal matters.
Art. 134A: Certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court.
Art. 135: Jurisdiction and powers of the Federal Court under existing law to be exercisable by the Supreme Court.
Art. 136: Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court.
Art. 137: Review of judgments or orders by the Supreme Court.
Art. 138: Enlargement of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
Art. 139: Conferment on the Supreme Court of powers to issue certain writs.
Art. 139A: Transfer of certain cases.
Art. 140: Ancillary powers of Supreme Court.
Art. 141: Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts.
Art. 142: Enforcement of decrees and orders of Supreme Court and orders as to discovery, etc.
Art. 143: Power of President to consult Supreme Court.
Art. 144: Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the Supreme Court.
Art. 145: Rules of Court, etc.
Art. 146: Officers and servants and the expenses of the Supreme Court.
Art. 147: Interpretation.
Chapter V: Comptroller and Auditor-General of India
Art. 148: Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.
Art. 149: Duties and powers of the Comptroller and Auditor-General.
Art. 150: Form of accounts of the Union and of the States.
Art. 151: Audit reports.
PART VI: THE STATES
Chapter I: General
Art. 152: Definition.
Chapter II: The Executive
Art. 153: Governors of States.
Art. 154: Executive power of State.
Art. 155: Appointment of Governor.
Art. 156: Term of office of Governor.
Art. 157: Qualifications for appointment as Governor.
Art. 158: Conditions of Governor's office.
Art. 159: Oath or affirmation by the Governor.
Art. 160: Discharge of the functions of the Governor in certain contingencies.
Art. 161: Power of Governor to grant pardons, etc.
Art. 162: Extent of executive power of State.
Art. 163: Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor.
Art. 164: Other provisions as to Ministers.
Art. 165: Advocate-General for the State.
Art. 166: Conduct of business of the Government of a State.
Art. 167: Duties of Chief Minister as respects the furnishing of information to Governor, etc.
Chapter III: The State Legislature
Art. 168: Constitution of Legislatures in States.
Art. 169: Abolition or creation of Legislative Councils in States.
Art. 170: Composition of the Legislative Assemblies.
Art. 171: Composition of the Legislative Councils.
Art. 172: Duration of State Legislatures.
Art. 173: Qualification for membership of the State Legislature.
Art. 174: Sessions of the State Legislature, prorogation and dissolution.
Art. 175: Right of Governor to address and send messages to the House or Houses.
Art. 176: Special address by the Governor.
Art. 177: Rights of Ministers and Advocate-General as respects the Houses.
Art. 178: The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly.
Art. 179: Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
Art. 180: Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to perform the duties of the office of Speaker.
Art. 181: The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside while a resolution for his removal is under consideration.
Art. 182: The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council.
Art. 183: Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Chairman and Deputy Chairman.
Art. 184: Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person to perform the duties of the office of Chairman.
Art. 185: The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to preside while a resolution for his removal is under consideration.
Art. 186: Salaries and allowances of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker and the Chairman and Deputy Chairman.
Art. 187: Secretariat of State Legislature.
Art. 188: Oath or affirmation by members.
Art. 189: Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act notwithstanding vacancies and quorum.
Art. 190: Vacation of seats.
Art. 191: Disqualifications for membership.
Art. 192: Decision on questions as to disqualifications of members.
Art. 193: Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath or when not qualified or when disqualified.
Art. 194: Powers, privileges, etc., of the Houses of Legislatures and of the members and committees thereof.
Art. 195: Salaries and allowances of members.
Art. 196: Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills.
Art. 197: Restriction on powers of Legislative Council as to Bills other than Money Bills.
Art. 198: Special procedure in respect of Money Bills.
Art. 199: Definition of "Money Bills".
Art. 200: Assent to Bills.
Art. 201: Bills reserved for consideration.
Art. 202: Annual financial statement.
Art. 203: Procedure in Legislature with respect to estimates.
Art. 204: Appropriation Bills.
Art. 205: Supplementary, additional or excess grants.
Art. 206: Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional grants.
Art. 207: Special provisions as to financial Bills.
Art. 208: Rules of procedure.
Art. 209: Regulation by law of procedure in the Legislature of the State in relation to financial business.
Art. 210: Language to be used in the Legislature.
Art. 211: Restriction on discussion in the Legislature.
Art. 212: Courts not to inquire into proceedings of the Legislature.
Chapter IV: Legislative Power of the Governor
Art. 213: Power of Governor to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Legislature.
Chapter V: The High Courts in the States
Art. 214: High Courts for States.
Art. 215: High Courts to be courts of record.
Art. 216: Constitution of High Courts.
Art. 217: Appointment and conditions of the office of a Judge of a High Court.
Art. 218: Application of certain provisions relating to Supreme Court to High Courts.
Art. 219: Oath or affirmation by Judges of High Courts.
Art. 220: Restriction on practice after being a permanent Judge.
Art. 221: Salaries, etc., of Judges.
Art. 222: Transfer of a Judge from one High Court to another.
Art. 223: Appointment of acting Chief Justice.
Art. 224: Appointment of additional and acting Judges.
Art. 224A: Appointment of retired Judges at sittings of High Courts.
Art. 225: Jurisdiction of existing High Courts.
Art. 226: Power of High Courts to issue certain writs.
Art. 227: Power of superintendence over all courts by the High Court.
Art. 228: Transfer of certain cases to High Court.
Art. 229: Officers and servants and the expenses of High Courts.
Art. 230: Extension of jurisdiction of High Courts to Union territories.
Art. 231: Establishment of a common High Court for two or more States.
Chapter VI: Subordinate Courts
Art. 233: Appointment of district judges.
Art. 233A: Validation of appointments of, and judgments, etc., delivered by, certain district judges.
Art. 234: Recruitment of persons other than district judges to the judicial service.
Art. 235: Control over subordinate courts.
Art. 236: Interpretation.
Art. 237: Application of the provisions of this Chapter to certain class or classes of magistrates.
PART VII: THE STATES IN PART B OF THE FIRST SCHEDULE
Art. 238: (Repealed).
PART VIII: THE UNION TERRITORIES
Art. 239: Administration of Union territories.
Art. 239A: Creation of local Legislatures or Council of Ministers or both for certain Union territories.
Art. 239AA: Special provisions with respect to Delhi.
Art. 239AB: Provision in case of failure of constitutional machinery.
Art. 239B: Power of administrator to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Legislature.
Art. 240: Power of President to make regulations for certain Union territories.
Art. 241: High Courts for Union territories.
Art. 242: (Repealed).
PART IX: THE PANCHAYATS
Art. 243: Definitions.
Art. 243A: Gram Sabha.
Art. 243B: Constitution of Panchayats.
Art. 243C: Composition of Panchayats.
Art. 243D: Reservation of seats.
Art. 243E: Duration of Panchayats, etc.
Art. 243F: Disqualifications for membership.
Art. 243G: Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats.
Art. 243H: Powers to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Panchayats.
Art. 243I: Constitution of Finance Commission to review financial position.
Art. 243J: Audit of accounts of Panchayats.
Art. 243K: Elections to the Panchayats.
Art. 243L: Application to Union territories.
Art. 243M: Part not to apply to certain areas.
Art. 243N: Continuance of existing laws and Panchayats.
Art. 243O: Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.
PART IXA: THE MUNICIPALITIES
Art. 243P to 243ZG: Articles related to the constitution, composition, powers, and finances of Municipalities.
PART IXB: THE CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES
Art. 243ZH to 243ZT: Articles related to the incorporation, members, management, and regulation of Co-operative Societies.
PART X: THE SCHEDULED AND TRIBAL AREAS
Art. 244: Administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas.
Art. 244A: Formation of an autonomous State comprising certain tribal areas in Assam and creation of local Legislature or Council of Ministers or both therefor.
PART XI: RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE STATES
Chapter I: Legislative Relations
Art. 245 to 255: Articles detailing the distribution of legislative powers (Union List, State List, Concurrent List) and parliamentary power to legislate on state matters.
Chapter II: Administrative Relations
Art. 256 to 263: Articles concerning the administrative relations, obligations of States and the Union, control of the Union over States, and provisions for an Inter-State Council.
PART XII: FINANCE, PROPERTY, CONTRACTS AND SUITS
Chapter I: Finance
Art. 264 to 291: Articles related to taxes, Consolidated Funds, Contingency Funds, Finance Commission, and other financial matters.
Chapter II: Borrowing
Art. 292: Borrowing by the Government of India.
Art. 293: Borrowing by States.
Chapter III: Property, Contracts, Rights, Liabilities, Obligations and Suits
Art. 294 to 300: Articles dealing with succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities and obligations.
Art. 300A: Right to property (no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law).
PART XIII: TRADE, COMMERCE AND INTERCOURSE WITHIN THE TERRITORY OF INDIA
Art. 301 to 307: Articles ensuring freedom of trade, commerce, and intercourse, and the power of Parliament and State Legislatures to impose restrictions.
PART XIV: SERVICES UNDER THE UNION AND THE STATES
Chapter I: Services
Art. 308 to 314: Articles concerning public services, recruitment, tenure, and dismissal of persons serving the Union or a State.
Chapter II: Public Service Commissions
Art. 315 to 323: Articles on the constitution, appointment, functions, and reports of the Union and State Public Service Commissions.
PART XIVA: TRIBUNALS
Art. 323A: Administrative tribunals.
Art. 323B: Tribunals for other matters.
PART XV: ELECTIONS
Art. 324 to 329A: Articles on the superintendence, direction and control of elections by the Election Commission, and related matters.
PART XVI: SPECIAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN CLASSES
Art. 330 to 342A: Articles providing for reservation for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Anglo-Indians in legislative bodies, and provisions for National Commissions for SC, ST, and Backward Classes.
PART XVII: OFFICIAL LANGUAGE
Chapter I: Language of the Union
Art. 343: Official language of the Union.
Art. 344: Commission and Committee of Parliament on official language.
Chapter II: Regional Languages
Art. 345 to 347: Articles on official languages of States.
Chapter III: Language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, etc.
Art. 348 to 349: Articles specifying the language to be used in the Supreme Court, High Courts, and for Acts, Bills, etc.
Chapter IV: Special Directives
Art. 350: Language to be used in representations for redress of grievances.
Art. 350A: Facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage.
Art. 350B: Special Officer for linguistic minorities.
Art. 351: Directive for development of the Hindi language.
PART XVIII: EMERGENCY PROVISIONS
Art. 352: Proclamation of Emergency (National Emergency).
Art. 353: Effect of Proclamation of Emergency.
Art. 354: Application of provisions relating to distribution of revenues while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation.
Art. 355: Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance.
Art. 356: Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States (President's Rule).
Art. 357: Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation issued under article 356.
Art. 358: Suspension of provisions of article 19 during emergencies.
Art. 359: Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies.
Art. 360: Provisions as to financial emergency.
PART XIX: MISCELLANEOUS
Art. 361 to 367: Miscellaneous provisions including protection of President and Governors, definitions, and interpretation.
PART XX: AMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION
Art. 368: Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure therefor.
PART XXI: TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS
Art. 369 to 392: Articles containing temporary powers to Parliament and special provisions for various States like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, etc.
PART XXII: SHORT TITLE, COMMENCEMENT, AUTHORITATIVE TEXT IN HINDI AND REPEALS
Art. 393: Short title — This Constitution may be called the Constitution of India.
Art. 394: Commencement.
Art. 394A: Authoritative text in the Hindi language.
Art. 395: Repeals.
4. The Schedules of the Constitution
Schedules are tables that contain additional details not mentioned in the articles.
- 1st Schedule: States & UTs.
- 2nd Schedule: Salaries and Emoluments.
- 3rd Schedule: Oaths and Affirmations.
- 4th Schedule: Allocation of seats in Rajya Sabha.
- 5th Schedule: Administration of Scheduled Areas & Tribes.
- 6th Schedule: Administration of tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram (AMTM).
- 7th Schedule: Division of powers (Union, State, Concurrent Lists).
- 8th Schedule: 22 Official Languages.
- 9th Schedule: Acts saved from judicial review.
- 10th Schedule: Anti-Defection Law (52nd Amd).
- 11th Schedule: Panchayats (73rd Amd).
- 12th Schedule: Municipalities (74th Amd).
5. Landmark Supreme Court Cases
| Case Name | Year | Significance / Judgment |
|---|---|---|
| Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala | 1973 | The "Basic Structure" Doctrine. Parliament can amend anything but cannot alter the basic structure of the Constitution. |
| Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India | 1978 | Widened the scope of Art 21. Procedure must be "just, fair, and reasonable." |
| Minerva Mills v. Union of India | 1980 | Reaffirmed Basic Structure. Harmony between FRs and DPSPs is a basic feature. |
| Indira Sawhney v. Union of India | 1992 | Upheld OBC reservation but imposed a 50% ceiling and introduced the 'creamy layer' concept. |
| S.R. Bommai v. Union of India | 1994 | Restricted arbitrary use of Art 356 (President's Rule). Secularism is a basic feature. |
| K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India | 2017 | Right to Privacy is a Fundamental Right under Article 21. |
| Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India | 2018 | Decriminalized consensual homosexual acts by partially striking down Section 377 of the IPC. |
6. List of Important Constitutional Amendments
| Amendment | Year | Key Provision(s) |
|---|---|---|
| 42nd | 1976 | "Mini-Constitution". Added 'Socialist', 'Secular', 'Integrity' to Preamble. Added Fundamental Duties. |
| 44th | 1978 | Deleted Right to Property from FRs. Replaced 'internal disturbance' with 'armed rebellion' for National Emergency. |
| 52nd | 1985 | Added 10th Schedule (Anti-Defection Law). |
| 61st | 1989 | Reduced voting age from 21 to 18 years. |
| 73rd & 74th | 1992 | Constitutional status for Panchayats and Municipalities. |
| 86th | 2002 | Made Right to Education (Art 21A) an FR. |
| 101st | 2016 | Introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST). |
| 103rd | 2019 | Provided 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS). |
| 104th | 2020 | Extended SC/ST reservation; abolished Anglo-Indian nominated seats. |
| 105th | 2021 | Restored power of states to identify Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs). |
| 106th (Latest) | 2023 | Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam: Reserves one-third of seats for women in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies. |
This guide covers the most critical aspects of Indian Polity for your exam preparation. Keep revising, stay updated with current affairs related to polity, and you will be well on your way to success. All the best!
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